Family Life Cycle Is a Psychological Dimension Used for Segmenting Markets.

Market Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning

Zhixian Yi , in Marketing Services and Resources in Information Organizations, 2018

4.iii Partitioning Methods

Sectionalisation tin can be carried out based on geographic, demographic, geodemographic, behavioral, lifestyle, and psychological characteristics (De Saez, 2002, pp. 118–123). Characteristics such as gender, historic period, race, occupation, religion, and pedagogy are used in demographic segmentation (De Saez, 2002). Geographic division is a simpler segmentation based on regions and locality. Behavioral segmentation takes into account usage statistics, for instance, the number, blazon and branch location of borrowing to differentiate the marketplace (Millsap, 2011). There are many segmentation methods, and more than ane may exist required to achieving distinctive segments. Mutual methods include:

•

Geographic division refers to dividing a market into different geographical units;

•

Demographic division means dividing the market into segments based on variables such as age, life-wheel phase, gender, income, occupation, educational activity, religion, ethnicity, and generation;

•

Psychographic partitioning is dividing a market into different segments based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics; and

•

Behavioral sectionalization refers to dividing a market into segments based on consumer cognition, attitude, uses, or responses to a product (Kotler & Armstrong, 2014, pp. 193–198; Kotler and Keller, 2009, pp. 213–226).

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The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory

Jeffrey G. Zacks , Jesse Q. Sargent , in Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2010

ii Event Partitioning Theory

Event Division Theory (EST) describes how and why our nervous systems segment ongoing experience into detached episodes (Zacks, Speer, Swallow, Braver, & Reynolds, 2007; see also Kurby & Zacks, 2008; Swallow & Zacks, 2008). For example, consider what might happen during a typical visit to a coffee store: yous wait in line, you give your order, you pay, you put cream in your coffee, yous leave. Different people will generate somewhat dissimilar lists of activities, but all are able to describe experience across time as organized into distinct units and overall there will exist considerable agreement across individuals regarding what those units are. EST proposes this happens because, as part of normal perceptual processing, humans automatically segment episodes into units. In fact, EST suggests that the ongoing sectionalization of experience is at the center of cognitive command, working memory (WM) updating, and storage and retrieval from episodic memory.

The cadre components of EST, corresponding hypothesized neurophysiological structures, and the basic flow of information are illustrated in Figure 1. Reference to Figure one may be helpful every bit nosotros describe the components of EST and review some of the relevant empirical evidence beneath. For a more detailed presentation of the neurocognitive business relationship, see Zacks et al. (2007). For a more detailed computational presentation and computer simulation results, run into Reynolds, Zacks, and Braver (2007).

Effigy one. Schematic depiction of the model, with hypotheses about the neurophysiological structures corresponding to the different components of the model. Sparse greyness arrows indicate the catamenia of data between processing areas, which are proposed to be due to long-range excitatory projections. Dashed lines betoken projections that lead to the resetting of issue models. PFC,   prefrontal cortex; Information technology,   inferotemporal cortex; MT+,   human MT complex; pSTS,   posterior superior temporal sulcus; ACC,   anterior cingulate cortex; SN,   substantia nigra; VTA,   ventral tegmental surface area; LC,   locus coeruleus; A1,   primary auditory cortex; S1,   primary somatosensory cortex; V1,   master visual cortex. (Adapted with permission from Zacks et al., 2007.)

EST starts from the assumption that some of the most important products of perception and comprehension are predictions about what will happen in the near future. Prediction is front and center in many gimmicky accounts of perceptual processing (Enns & Lleras, 2008), learning (Schultz & Dickinson, 2000), and language (Elman, 2009). Expert predictions are adaptive because they allow one to programme actions more successfully (eastward.m., avoiding hazards or intercepting desired objects). As well, good predictions can facilitate efficient perceptual processing. For case, if a bullpen winds upwardly and completes a throwing motion, the perceptual system anticipates that the ball will fly out of the pitcher's hand toward home plate. In the absence of such anticipation, perceiving the ball whizzing through the air would exist much more difficult—in fact, one might miss it altogether!

According to EST, prediction is abetted by WM representations called event models. Event models may exist thought of every bit representations of what-is-happening-at present. EST suggests that all perceptual input is processed in the context of a currently activated conception of what-is-happening-now. Our conceptualization of consequence models borrows heavily from piece of work on state of affairs models in soapbox comprehension (east.g., Zwaan & Radvansky, 1998). Event models stand for those aspects of a state of affairs that are consequent within an event, while ignoring those aspects that vary haphazardly from moment to moment. Such representations are helpful not only for prediction merely also because they allow the disambiguation of cryptic sensory data and the filling-in of missing information. For case, at a baseball game an upshot model would correspond the location of the baseball while it is subconscious in the pitcher'south glove. Nosotros have proposed that event models are maintained in lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC). Event models combine current perceptual information with information acquired very recently in the nowadays context, and with patterns of data learned over a lifetime of experience. For example, if you have never seen a baseball game game, the starting time time the pitcher sets up to throw, you may have very petty idea where the ball will become. Every bit the pitch count goes upwards, your expectation that each upcoming pitch will get to abode plate increases. All the same, if you are an experienced baseball game fan, each pitch in an at-bat is perceived in the context of an issue model informed past relatively stable long-term semantic memory about what happens at brawl games. In EST, these long-term weight based representations are referred to every bit effect schemata. In contrast, event models are activation-based WM representations. So, the content of an event model may overlap at any given time with a particular event schema, but when an outcome model ceases to have predictive value, it can be speedily and completely updated to reflect the changing state of affairs. Nosotros propose that issue schemata as well as result models are implemented past the lateral PFC. A number of studies suggest that representations of events are maintained in the inductive, lateral PFC (e.chiliad., Grafman, 1995; Schwartz et al., 1995; Woods & Grafman, 2003). We review some of this prove in more item in Section 6. The verbal nature of the interaction between event models and event schemata is currently a topic of active enquiry.

So, while event models may be informed by current perceptual data, they can also influence how the perceptual organisation processes that incoming data (see Effigy 1). For case, as described above, information provided by result models allows the visual system to anticipate the flight of a baseball game before it is released past the pitcher. However, result models may facilitate processing of all types of sensory data across numerous, distributed encephalon regions. Perceptual analysis is accomplished by hierarchically organized neural systems specialized for vision, hearing, touch, and the other sensory modalities. For example, in the visual system (Felleman & Van Essen, 1991), information is initially represented in terms of uncomplicated local visual features in the early visual areas (V1 and V2, in the posterior occipital cortex). Successive processing stages class representations that are increasingly extended in space and fourth dimension. Two broad streams process information important for object identification and for motor control relatively separately (Goodale, 1993). Features relevant to object identity and category are differentially represented in inferior temporal cortex (IT), whereas features related to motion and grasping are differentially represented in dorsal regions including the human MT complex (MT+) and the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS). Although in that location is communication between the streams and massive feedback throughout the system, these systems tin be described every bit hierarchically organized, following a crude posterior-to-anterior spatial organization. Many of the classical studies characterizing these perceptual systems were conducted in nonhuman primates and relied on radically simplified stimuli. Notwithstanding, recent neuroimaging studies take shown similar responses in these areas across individuals during movie viewing (Bartels & Zeki, 2004; Hasson, Nir, Levy, Fuhrmann, & Malach, 2004; Hasson, Yang, Vallines, Heeger, & Rubin, 2008). EST proposes that issue models bias processing in these streams. As nosotros shall see shortly, EST also proposes that the updating of event models regulates processing over time in these streams.

A critical characteristic of event models is that they need to be protected from moment-to-moment changes in sensory and perceptual data. Updating one'due south effect model to delete the baseball when it disappeared from sight would conspicuously exist counterproductive. Nonetheless, result models take to be updated somewhen in order to be useful—the baseball game game model will not be helpful at a gas station! The question is, when and how tin result models exist updated adaptively? EST's answer is that event models are updated in response to transient increases in prediction fault, mediated by systems in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and midbrain neuromodulatory systems. The ACC maintains predictions and constantly compares them to bodily inputs, producing an online error signal. Studies have shown this region to be sensitive to the commission of overt errors and to covertly measured cerebral conflict (east.one thousand., Botvinick, Braver, Barch, Carter, & Cohen, 2001) and to the learning of sequential behaviors (Koechlin, Danek, Burnod, & Grafman, 2002; Procyk, Tanaka, & Joseph, 2000). When prediction mistake increases suddenly, this is detected past monitoring systems in the midbrain, which broadcast a global reset signal to the cortex. This organization may include dopamine-based signaling subserved by the substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) and norepinephrine-based signaling subserved by the locus coeruleus (LC). Neurons in the SN and VTA are sensitive to errors in reward prediction (east.m., Schultz, 1998). Dopamine cells in the SN and VTA project broadly to the frontal cortex, both directly and through the striatum, providing a machinery for a reset point such every bit is posited past EST. The LC has been implicated in regulating the sensitivity of an organism to external stimuli (eastward.g., Usher, Cohen, Servan-Schreiber, Rajkowski, & Aston-Jones, 1999). It also has broad connections to the cortex, these based on norepinephrine rather than dopamine. The reset signal transiently opens an input gate on the event models, exposing them to the early on stages of sensory and perceptual processing (come across Figure 1). This produces a short flare-up of increased activity in the perceptual processing stream and the issue models settle into new states. Equally the consequence models are updated, predictions get more adaptive and errors decrease. The system returns to a stable configuration. A schematic representation of the temporal dynamics of the error-based updating process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure ii. Temporal dynamics of issue segmentation. Most of the fourth dimension prediction error is relatively low and result models are stable. As a model becomes less adaptive, prediction error increases. In response, information form sensory and perceptual processing is gated into the model, updating its contents. Later updating, fault declines and the model settles into new land.

According to this account, event segmentation is an ongoing concomitant of everyday experience, which happens without intent or necessarily awareness. The processing that occurs at event boundaries tin be viewed both as focal attention and every bit memory updating. An appropriate (stable) effect model is a WM buffer whose outputs bias processing in that stream. The opening upward of upshot models' inputs is a form of focal attention, and the settling into a new land is a class of memory updating. Event segmentation in and of itself is not the goal of the system; instead, it is a by-product of mechanisms evolved in support of a more efficient, predictive perceptual system.

Of import for thinking nearly how EST applies to daily experience, information technology is suggested that effect segmentation occurs simultaneously at multiple time scales. Consider the java shop example given in a higher place. If one's issue model for going to a java shop generates predictions consistent with all the distinct units of activeness typically involved (east.g., waiting, ordering, paying), then no error signal would be generated, the model would be stable throughout the episode, and no event boundaries would occur. So, how does EST explicate the partition of going to a coffee store into singled-out units of activity? We may consider events equally hierarchical representations. The event "going to a coffee shop" is at a higher level in the hierarchy than the events "waiting in line" and "ordering". Lower level aspects of an event representation are sensitive to prediction mistake signals integrated over shorter time scales. So, when information technology comes time to identify an gild, the "waiting in line" level of the hierarchical event representation generates some caste of prediction fault. That hierarchical level becomes unstable until the "ordering" model is instantiated at which betoken the error signal decreases. Meanwhile, at a higher level of the event representation, "going to a coffee shop" is insensitive to such short lived error signals. College levels are sensitive to error signals integrated over longer time scales. When one leaves the coffee shop, it is probable that at that place volition exist a more prolonged increase in error. The resulting prolonged error signal causes instability at a higher level of the hierarchical representation and "going to a coffee store" is abandoned for a more adaptive model. In accordance with this caption, nosotros would expect models at college hierarchical levels to make less specific predictions. Also, we would wait boundaries between events at college hierarchical levels to marshal with boundaries between events at lower levels.

2.ane Prior Evidence

EST makes a number of claims about behavior and encephalon function, some of which are consistent with previous research and some of which have been tested directly. First, EST predicts that event segmentation is an ongoing part of normal perceptual processing. Bear witness for this proposal comes from behavioral and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In a typical event segmentation image, participants watch movies of actors engaged in everyday activities (e.g., doing laundry) and are instructed to press a button whenever they believe i meaningful unit of measurement of activity has ended and another has begun ( Newtson, 1973). When instructions direct attention to larger (coarse grain) or smaller (fine grain) units of activity, the behavioral data are thought to reverberate ongoing event division at higher or lower levels of hierarchical result representation. Studies take demonstrated that segmentation of videos using this method shows both stable intersubject agreement, and stable private differences over a menses of more than than a year (Newtson, 1976; Speer, Consume, & Zacks, 2003; Zacks et al., 2007). Furthermore, observers spontaneously group fine-grained event boundaries into hierarchically organized fibroid-grained events (Newtson, 1976; Zacks, Tversky, & Iyer, 2001). That is, coarse grain boundaries tend to correspond to a subset of fine grain boundaries, which supports the view that consequence sectionalisation occurs simultaneously at multiple fourth dimension scales. The reliability and structure of the data from the segmentation task support the suggestion that this paradigm is capturing an ongoing characteristic of normal perception. Ultimately, however, these results bear witness but that individuals tin segment ongoing feel into units. Bear witness that individuals do segment feel in the course of normal 24-hour interval-to-day perception comes from neurophysiological studies. Using fMRI, Zacks et al. (2001) first monitored participants' brain activity during passive viewing of simple movies. Afterward, participants segmented the movies by indicating whenever, in their view, ane meaningful unit of activeness had ended and another had begun. During passive viewing, a drove of regions transiently increased in activeness at those moments that viewers later on identified as outcome boundaries. These regions included areas in lateral posterior cortex (including the inferior and superior temporal sulci and ventral temporal cortex), medial posterior cortex (including the cuneus and precuneus), and lateral frontal cortex. Similar results have been generated using several variations of this general paradigm (Speer, Zacks, & Reynolds, 2007; Speer et al., 2003; Zacks, Consume, Vettel, & McAvoy, 2006).

Second, EST predicts that perceptual processing increases at result boundaries. The fact that encephalon activity transiently increases at event boundaries is consequent with this prediction—particularly suggestive are the increases in posterior regions associated with perceptual processing. It has been shown that memory for perceptual details at or around result boundaries is ameliorate than that for details associated with event middles (Newtson & Engquist, 1976; Schwan, Garsoffky, & Hesse, 2000). Also, EST suggests that if the surface structure of events is consequent with the underlying event construction, so consequence sectionalisation mechanisms should operate more efficiently, and again, memory for the episode should improve. This too has been borne out in the laboratory (e.g., Schwan & Garsoffky, 2004). For example, Boltz (1992) showed participants a feature film with no commercial breaks, breaks that corresponded to event boundaries, or with breaks placed at nonboundaries. Think of activity and memory for the temporal order of events in the flick was improved by the breaks at outcome boundaries and reduced past the breaks at nonboundaries. Further support for the suggestion that segmenting events in a manner that corresponds to their intrinsic structure improves memory for those events comes from a study of private differences. Zacks, Speer, Vettel, and Jacoby (2006) found that group-typical segmentation of movies, which may be assumed to reflect intrinsic structure, predicted ameliorate operation on subsequent retentivity tests after controlling for overall cognitive level.

Another prediction of EST is that information associated with the current event model, and thus active in WM, should exist more accessible than information associated with a previously active model. When using text material, event boundaries can be induced by imposing a change such as a temporal break (e.grand., "…a day later…") or a shift of spatial location (e.g., "the detective outburst into the room"). Such shifts result in the perception of an effect boundary for films also (Zacks, Speer, & Reynolds, 2009). Numerous studies using text comprehension accept shown results consequent with this prediction (e.m., Bower & Rinck, 2001; Zwaan & Radvansky, 1998). For example, Speer and Zacks (2005) required participants to read narratives and showed that retentiveness for items in the narrative was lower when a temporal pause intervened between the mention of the detail and the exam. Similar results accept recently been obtained with movies (Swallow, Zacks, & Abrams, 2009).

In sum, EST proposes that predictions about the nearly future are guided by WM representations of the electric current event, which are updated in response to transient increases in prediction error. This updating includes upregulation of the perceptual processing pathways feeding into upshot models. The feel of an error spike and consistent updating is perceived equally a boundary between meaningful events. Thus, event segmentation is an ongoing perceptual mechanism standing at the center of attention, cognitive control, and retentivity. It is subserved by a distributed set of brain mechanisms described higher up (see Figure ane). If one or more of these is selectively affected by a disorder or age-related procedure, it may have substantial consequences for cognition.

In the following sections, we apply EST to the analysis of six weather condition in clinical neuroscience. We take selected half-dozen weather based on the overlap betwixt the neurocognitive mechanisms implicated in each and the mechanisms of event partitioning as proposed by EST. The half-dozen are: schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Parkinson's disease (PD), lesions of the PFC, aging, and Advertizement. Our selections are necessarily heuristic and surely incomplete. However, we think the analysis shows the potential for EST to provide new insights regarding major cognitive deficits associated with these disorders.

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Auditory Scene Analysis: Computational Models

G.J. Brown , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

5 Segmentation

The segmentation stage of CASA aims to represent the auditory scene in a manner that is acquiescent to grouping. Frame-based systems omit this stage of processing: they operate straight on the acoustic features described above.

In many CASA systems, the sectionalization phase makes temporal continuity explicit. Typical is the approach of Cooke (1993), which tracks changes in instantaneous frequency and instantaneous amplitude in each aqueduct of an auditory filterbank to create 'synchrony strands' (Fig. two). Each strand traces the development of an audio-visual component (such as an harmonic or formant) in the time-frequency plane. This arroyo offers advantages over frame-based processing: considering frame-based schemes make grouping decisions locally in fourth dimension, they must resolve ambiguities which would take an obvious solution if temporal continuity were taken into account.

Effigy 2. Segregation of speech from an interfering telephone ring in the 'symbolic' CASA arrangement described by Cooke (1993). The utterance is 'why were y'all all weary?' spoken by a male person speaker. A group of harmonically related synchrony strands belonging to the speech source are highlighted in gray. The remaining strands (shown in black) predominantly vest to the phone sound

Neural oscillator models of CASA also exploit temporal continuity in the time-frequency plane. In this approach, groups of features that vest to the same acoustic source are represented by a population of neural oscillators whose firing is synchronized. Other groups of features are also represented by synchronized populations just oscillators coding different audio sources are desynchronized. The model of Wang and Brownish (1999) employs an compages consisting of a 'segmentation layer' and a 'grouping layer.' Each layer is a ii-dimensional network of oscillators with respect to time and frequency. In the partition layer, lateral connections are formed between oscillators on the basis of local similarities in energy and periodicity. Synchronized populations of oscillators emerge that represent contiguous regions in the time-frequency airplane (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Behavior of the Wang and Brown (1999) system for the sound mixture shown in Fig. 2. Ii groups of synchronized oscillators are shown, respective to the speech (white) and telephone (greyness)

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New Media, News Product and Consumption

Eugenia Mitchelstein , Pablo J. Boczkowski , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2d Edition), 2015

The Consequences of Online News Consumption for Political Knowledge

Segmentation in online news audiences according to their level and type of attention to public affairs content raises the issue of whether access to online news fosters or hinders political noesis. Scholars disagree on how best to narrate the relationship betwixt Internet information consumption and information acquisition. Some researchers draw on Downs' economic theory of democracy ( 1957) to propose that the increased accessibility of online news makes it easier for citizens to access political information (Johnson and Kaye, 2003; Tewksbury and Rittenberg, 2009: 197).

But other researchers contend that increased availability of news content online might only increase access to public affairs content for those already engaged in political issues (Margolis and Resnick, 2000). Some scholars have drawn upon the noesis gap theory to propose that the infusions of data have an uneven effect on citizen knowledge, as the population with higher levels of instruction tends to acquire this data at a faster rate than those with fewer years of schooling (Jerit et al., 2006). For case, Yang and Grabe compare noesis acquisition amid South Korean citizens from different educational backgrounds, and conclude that "less educated people comprehended significantly more public affairs news from reading a newspaper than using an online source while more educated people delivered similar comprehension performances across the two media" (2011: 1223).

A unlike stream of research proposes that use of the Internet might increase the likelihood of unplanned news consumption, as consumers may increase their awareness about public affairs subjects when they are exposed to online information as a effect of general Web use (Lupia and Philpot, 2005). Rainie and colleagues clarify survey data from the 2004 presidential campaign in the United states and find that "fully half of internet users (50%) said they encountered political news by happenstance browsing" (Rainie et al., 2005: 9).

Scholars accept likewise analyzed whether exposure to online news is more or less conducive to learning political knowledge than utilise of traditional news media. Some studies show that online information consumption reduces knowledge and recall of current events (Althaus and Tewksbury, 2002; Dalrymple and Scheufele, 2007). Schoenbach, de Waal, and Lauf conduct a survey of the Dutch population and find that "reading print newspapers contributes to awareness of more public events and problems than using online newspapers does" (2005: 253). Nonetheless, other research indicates that access to online news does non lead to a decrease in data conquering when compared to traditional news media use (Drew and Weaver, 2006). Kwak and colleagues conducted a survey in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and constitute that "the Internet, as compared to television receiver, was more than useful to younger respondents in their agreement of international affairs" (Kwak et al., 2006: 203).

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Financial Integration in Europe

T. Jappelli , K. Pagano , in The Testify and Touch of Financial Globalization, 2013

Immigration and Settlement

The segmentation of the clearing and settlement system entails improperly high costs for cantankerous-border trades. Segmentation depends partly on the persistent fragmentation of stock trading platforms. Some exchanges, such as Deutsche Börse, in fact, are vertically integrated, with both a platform to provide trading services and a proprietary clearing and settlement organisation for the corresponding posttrading services ('silo structure'). This limits the contest from other trading platforms since new entrants' customers would nevertheless have to utilize the incumbent'southward posttrade clearing and settlement system.

Entry foreclosure generates rents for incumbent exchanges, and overcoming this problem is likely to require regulatory action at the EU level. This is recognized both past the EU Committee and by the ECB, which appear in July 2006 that it was because the desirability of going into the settlement business itself, with a organisation called 'Target ii Securities' (T2S). The ECB would not be the first public institution to provide central clearing and settlement services. In the United States, the Federal Reserve Lath runs a bond settlement business, and both clearing and settlement are the product of the Depository Trust and Immigration Corporation, a user-endemic service company created as a directly result of regime force per unit area.

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Geodemographics

J. Goss , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

iv Consumer Profiling

Contemporary segmentation schemes go well beyond the abstract demographic variables of the census to offer 'Character: not just characteristics,' and this system, called Focus, for example, offers 'multidimensional portraits of existent people,' revealing 'lifestyle and mindset' and promising marketers will 'see how customers view themselves,' and 'encounter their customers on a first name basis' (National Demographics and Lifestyles 1993, p. 2). Partition schemes draw upon information on make preferences, media habits, credit rating, lifestyle and values, to carve up neighborhoods in the Us, typically into 30–40 categories such as 'Pools and Patios,' 'Shotguns and Pickups,' 'Fur and Station Wagons,' and 'Hard Scrabble' (PRIZM) or 'Cautious Young Couples,' 'Sustaining Indigenous Families,' and 'Immature Accumulators' (MicroVision). Marketers 'go acquainted' with these potential customers through visual scenarios representing consumers engaged in a typical activities in front of their home and/or detailed imaginary vignettes describing their typical names and everyday lives—particularly their consumption practices. Although analysts argue their schemes imply no social judgments, the rankings, weightings and premiums charged for names of affluent consumers, and description of segments give them away: to the marketing manufacture, social identity and value is lifestyle, and 'yous are what you buy' (Piirto 1991, p. 23).

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Social responsibility, social marketing function, and societal attitudes

Rasa Smaliukiene , Salvatore Monni , in Energy Transformation Towards Sustainability, 2020

Segmentation

Energy users' segmentation divides a large population into groups according to their shared values, wants, and needs. According to segmentation theory, people in the same group are probable to reply to behavioral interventions similarly. Typically, any population is segmented according to demographic characteristics (such as historic period, gender, ethnicity, etc.); yet, as technologies of the Internetera shape everyday behavior, free energy users' partition is based more on attitudes and lifestyles than on wants and needs. As a effect, division of energy users identifies i or more than segments in the target audience ( Thøgersen, 2017) every bit there is an in-depth understanding that it is impossible to be effective across all the population. It, therefore, has to be segmented into groups and only a few segments can be targeted with social marketing mix.

As already mentioned, social marketing adopts the methods of commercial marketing, still its purpose is very different. In business organization, the aforementioned segments are targeted with a variety of accompanying products they might prefer to use. In contrast, social marketing targets behavior only with ane goal and this goal is usually associated with the decrease in consumption. In that location are a few segmentation approaches developed to empathize how a population can be segmented co-ordinate to its mental attitude toward the environs. As an example, Table 14.ane presents segmentations of UK and US markets. Co-ordinate to these sectionalisation examples, energy users tin can be divided into three large groups based on their attitude toward the environment—environmentalists, the environmentally concerned, and the disinterested. How large these groups are and how many segments compose each group depends on values of the lodge at large. As we can sees fromthe Great britain and US segmentation results, UK society has more than segments that are environmentalist and environmentally concerned. Meanwhile US society's segmentation identifies more than unique segments that are indicated every bit disinterested in the ecology impact of their consumption.

Table fourteen.1. Segmentation of Uk and U.s.a. populations co-ordinate to attitude toward environment and climate change.

Segments of the UK population	Segments of the U.s. population	Segment clarification
Positive greens	Liberal greens	Environmentalists: are very worried near environmental issues and feel interconnected with the nature, try to conserve whenever they tin
Waste watchers
Concerned consumers	Outdoor greens	Environmentalists: are very worried about environmental issues, environs-friendly behavior makes them experience better
Sideline supporters	Religious greens
Cautious participants	Heart-of-the-roaders	Environmentally concerned: are generally concerned about the environs, but behave environmentfriendly only considering of constraints
Long-term restricted
Stalled starters	Homebodies	Disinterested: they tend toward apathy when it comes to ecology issues, environmental issues do non resonate with them
Honestly disengaged
	Disengaged
	Outdoor browns
	Religious browns
	Conservative browns

Based on the data from Public Opinion and the Surroundings: The Nine Types of Americans. Yale School of Forestry & Ecology Studies, 2015. and Defra, January 2008. A Framework for Pro-environmental Behaviours.

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Brains for All the Ages

John Eastward. Richards , Wanze Xie , in Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 2015

3.iii Nonmyelinated Axon Tissue Segmentation in Infants

Tissue partition of encephalon images from infants poses special challenges. The GM and WM contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) for infant MRI is significantly lower than the CNR for adult brain MRI ( Mewes et al., 2006). This results in poor resolution across the spatial aspects of the MRI volume and consequent difficulty in segmenting partial volume regions. During the showtime ii years of life, the WM/GM dissimilarity is reversed (every bit compared to developed contrast) on T1- and T2-weighted images and gradually changes toward the MRI contrast of adult brains (Leppert et al., 2009; Paus et al., 1999; Xue et al., 2007). At around 9 months of age, GM and WM demonstrate roughly the aforementioned intensities and cannot be segmented by the sole use of intensity differentiation (Barkovich, 2005; Paus et al., 1999). Additionally, the brain in infants consists of a large amount of nonmyelinated axons (NMA). The T1 relaxation times for NMA and GM are approximately equivalent, so that "neuronal cell bodies" and "nonmyelinated axons" appear the same on T1W scans (e.yard., Figures ii and iii, youngest ages). Through the identification of myelinated and NMA, regional changes of WM and of import maturational processes tin be distinguished and quantified (Aubert-Broche, Fonov, Leppert, Expressway, & Collins, 2008; Barkovich, 2005; Weisenfeld & Warfield, 2009). By nigh 2 years of age, the contrast plant in the developing brain more than closely resembles that of an developed brain due to the progression of increasing myelination and decreasing water content (Leppert et al., 2009; Rutherford, 2002).

Nonmyelinated and myelinated axons and cortical and subcortical GM have been analyzed separately in the neonatal brain (Anbeek et al., 2008; Hüppi et al., 1998; Prastawa et al., 2005; Weisenfeld & Warfield, 2009). The different tissue types in the infant encephalon exhibit significant levels of intensity inhomogeneity and variability, in addition to overlapping intensity distributions (Prastawa et al., 2005; Shi et al., 2010). Some researchers have developed methods to distinguish myelinated and NMA in MRIs. Prastawa et al. (2005) treated myelination as a fractional holding, such that the MRI intensities reflected the degree of myelination in partial volume estimates. This procedure was somewhat successful in differentiating myelinated and NMA in the newborn brain. However, the dividing boundaries between the two tissue types were generally ambiguous (Prastawa et al., 2005; Rutherford, 2002), and the results showed mislabeled partial book voxels (Xue et al., 2007). Others take expanded on the segmentation methodology of Prastawa et al. (2005) through the use of priors or iterative algorithms (Gilmore et al., 2007; Weisenfeld & Warfield, 2009). Hüppi et al. (1998) differentiated between myelinated and NMA in newborn brains and plant a fivefold increment in the myelinated WM book between 35 and 41 weeks postconception. Studies accept demonstrated significant reductions (~   35%) of myelination in preterm infants when compared to term infants (Inder, Warfield, Wang, Hüppi, & Volpe, 2005; Mewes et al., 2006). Neonatal studies showing early on rapid developmental changes highlight the importance of delineating the complete progression of the myelination procedure.

We are working on procedures to create segmented priors for the reference data with GM, WM, CSF, OM, and NMA in the MRI volumes across baby historic period groups. Our segmentation technique uses both the T1W and T2W classification (Shi et al., 2010) to aid in tissue discrimination. Myelinated axons appear as "white matter" in the T1W volumes and dark thing in T2W scans (adults, older children). NMA announced in the T2W volumes as slightly brighter intensity voxels than GM (young infants). Figure eleven shows our procedure applied to two infants and the boilerplate MRI template for infants. The tiptop row shows the identification of WM from the ii-course model for a MRI from a 2-week-one-time participant. The two-form model categorizes WM successfully merely classifies NMA with GM (top row, second cavalcade, blue (blackness in the print version) color). Nosotros then use the T2-weighted scan (third column) to identify the NMA (fourth column, dark-green (grayness in the print version) color) and create a three-course model (GM, WM, and NMA; far right column). Figure 11 (2nd row) shows the results of this classification for a six-month-sometime. Notation the higher proportion of WM in the infant brain at this historic period. The third row shows the results of this analysis for the average MRI templates for infants ranging in age from three to vii.5 months of age.

Figure xi. Centric slices demonstrating the NMA segmentation. The top and eye rows show the segmentation for a two-week-one-time and vi-calendar month-old, respectively. The columns from left to right are the T1W brain, "GM/WM" segmentation, the T2Wand the NMA classified in the T2W, and the three-form segmentation (GM, WM, and NMA). The last row shows the change in the three-class model form iii to 7.5 months for average MRI volumes and average probability values. The crosshairs on the coronal slices are centered on the inductive commissure. The effulgence of the colors for the GM/WM and GM/WM/NMA stand for the probability that the voxel belongs to the category (GM, blueish (black in the print version); WM, xanthous (white in the print version); NMA, green (gray in the impress version)).

We examined the changes in the NMA volume across the kickoff yr. The identification of GM with 2-form models is compromised since NMA and GM are classified in the same category with the ii-class (GM and WM) sectionalisation. So the changes in GM over historic period in the infancy period (e.thou., Effigy 8) overestimate the "'gray affair" (neuron jail cell bodies, nuclei). Effigy 12 shows a like analysis of the tissue volumes for infants from three to 12 months. The changes in WM are the same every bit before, since myelinated axons are correctly identified with the two-class model. The GM in Figure 12 represents the GM (NMA) and NMA in the same figure. There is a change in volume of the NMA through the get-go 6 months, likely due to overall changes in axonal growth and synaptogenesis. However, this begins to drop by seven.v–9 months. This should decrease further in the 2d year.

Effigy 12. Gray thing, white thing, and nonmyelinated axonssegmented tissue book in infants as a function of age. The "GM" is from the GM/WM (OM) ii-course division, and the "GM (NMA)" is from the GM/NMA partitioning. The error confined represent the standard fault of the mean (SE).

The changes nosotros report in WM book are consequent with other reports, both from MRI analysis (Deoni et al., 2011) and other methods. The rapidly changing myelination likely affects integrated neurological or behavioral functions due to communication across different brain areas (Casey et al., 2000; Deoni et al., 2011). The results of the NMA volume assay are new. Changes in GM volume have been interpreted every bit being primarily due to synaptogenesis. This should have a direct influence on behavioral plasticity during this age range equally the emergence and pruning of synaptic connections results in learning, language development, memory, and developmental canalization. Withal, our analysis shows a more gradual increase in GM volume. The measurement of GM evolution in the get-go few months is confounded with volumetric increases in nonmyelinated axonal growth, whereas when axonal myelination is reflected in more WM there is an apparent increment in GM that actually reflects NMA decreases. We cannot specifically detail what GM–NMA-behavioral relations would occur with the distinction between GM and NMA, but our methods should event in a refined model of brain–beliefs changes over this fourth dimension period.

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Stochastic Approximation Algorithms for Estimation of Spatial Mixed Models

Hongtu Zhu , ... Bradley Due south. Peterson , in Handbook of Latent Variable and Related Models, 2007

Example 2 (Image sectionalisation)

Image segmentation is used to allocate an image into a set up of nonoverlapping regions { R ₁, …, R_Yard }. We consider a special case of SMMs as follows. The observation at a detail pixel due south can exist written as

(4) $y\left(\mathrm{southward}\right)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{k}{\Sigma }}\Phi \left(s,{\beta }_k\right)f_k\left(s\right)+\varepsilon \left(\mathrm{south}\right),$

where ε(southward) ~ N(0, ϕ⁻¹), Φ (.,.) is a parametric model, and β _m is the parameter vector for R_yard. In addition, f(s) = (f ₁(s), …, f_K (due south)), f_k (southward) ε {0, ane}, ${\sum }_{\mathrm{Yard}=\mathrm{i}}^{\mathrm{Grand}}{f}_k\left(\mathrm{southward}\right)=1$ , and f_m (s) = 1 if and merely if s ∈ R_k. Thus, $\mu \left(s\right)=\text{Eastward}\left[y\left(\mathrm{due\; south}\right)|f\right]={\sum }_{K=\mathrm{one}}^K\Phi \left(s,{\beta }_{\mathrm{chiliad}}\right)f_k\left(s\right)$ . Nosotros farther assume that the joint distribution of the label field f = {f(s): s = 1, …, n} is given by

$p\left(f|\tau \right)=exp\left\{\tau \underset{{\mathrm{southward}}_i\sim s_j}{\Sigma }\delta \left(f\left({\mathrm{due\; south}}_i\right),f\left({\mathrm{due\; south}}_j\right)\right)-logC\left(\tau \right)\right\},$

where the summation is taken over all nearest-neighbour pairs (south_i ~ s_j ), δ(x, z) is the Kronecker role equaling to i when ten = z and 0 otherwise, and τ is the parameter controlling the granularity of the field. In addition, C(τ) is obtained by summing over all possible configurations f (e.g., n^M terms).

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Variational Modeling Methods for Visualization

HANS HAGEN , INGRID HOTZ , in Visualization Handbook, 2005

nineteen.three.2 Segmentation

For a segmentation, all points have to be grouped in such a mode that each grouping represents a surface (patch) of the terminal CAD model. The segmentations criterion is based on a curvature estimation scheme. The curvature at a point p can exist estimated by computing an approximating function for a local set of points effectually p. Hamann [3] uses the osculating paraboloids as approximating functions in his algorithm. Schreiber [five] extended this approach past using a full general polynomial function to gauge a local gear up of points around p. First, a set of points neighboring p is adamant by the Delaunay triangulation; this set of points is called the platelet. The platelet consists initially of all points that share a common edge of a triangle with p. This platelet is extended by adding all points that share a common edge with any platelet points. For a amend curvature estimation, this extension is repeated several times.

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